Muhammad ﷺ

01Birth, early life and the first revelation

Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, was born into Banu Hashim in Makkah, traditionally dated to the Year of the Elephant. His father died before his birth. After losing his mother Aminah in childhood, he was cared for by his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib and then his uncle Abu Talib.

No authentic hadith establishes a particular day of Rabi al-Awwal as his birth date. Sahih Muslim establishes that he was born on a Monday; the day of the month is disputed.

He tended sheep in his youth. Authentic reports describe the prophets doing so, a responsibility requiring patience and care. He later traded, and Khadijah recognised his trustworthiness and married him.

He lived among his people for forty years before prophethood without a reputation for lying or betrayal. His earlier honesty matters, but the evidence of his mission also rests on the revelation and signs he brought.

When Quraysh rebuilt the Ka'bah, the tribes disputed who should place the Black Stone. They accepted Muhammad as an arbiter because they trusted him.

He placed the stone on a cloth, involved the tribal leaders in carrying it and then put it in position himself. The account is reported in the biography literature; its lesson in resolving conflict does not require treating every detail as an authenticated hadith.

He came to love seclusion and worshipped in the cave of Hira. Jibril came with the command to read, and the opening verses of Surah Al-Alaq were revealed. He returned to Khadijah trembling and asked to be covered.

Khadijah reassured him by recalling his care for relatives, vulnerable people, guests and those facing hardship. She took him to Waraqah ibn Nawfal, who recognised the bearer of revelation who had come to Musa.

02The first call and the earliest believers

After revelation began, the opening of Surah Al-Muddaththir called the Prophet to warn people, magnify his Lord, purify his conduct and abandon idols.

The central message was worship of Allah alone and preparation for the Hereafter. Its starting point was reform of belief, heart and conduct, not a bid for tribal power.

Khadijah believed from the beginning and supported him personally and financially. Ali, Zayd and Abu Bakr accepted Islam, and Abu Bakr invited others whom he knew to be sincere.

Biographers differ over some ordering of the earliest converts according to categories such as woman, free adult, child or freedman. These differences need not become disputes about their virtues.

The first believers learned the Qur'an, prayer, monotheism and patience. Their formation through revelation helped prepare them to endure persecution.

The house of Al-Arqam is well known in the biography literature as a place of gathering and learning. Exact durations for every stage and daily totals of converts are not established by an authentic text.

When instructed to warn his close relatives, the Prophet called Quraysh from Al-Safa. They affirmed that they had never known him to lie when he asked whether they would believe a warning about an approaching army. He then warned them of Allah's punishment.

Abu Lahab rejected the call despite being a close relative, and Surah Al-Masad was revealed. The differing responses of Khadijah, Ali, Zayd, Abu Talib and Abu Lahab show that family ties alone do not determine a person's response to revelation.

03Persecution, Abyssinia and the boycott

Public preaching brought greater hostility from Quraysh: attacks on the message, social pressure and violence, especially against believers without clan protection.

Authentic reports describe Uqbah choking the Prophet with his garment near the Ka'bah until Abu Bakr intervened. They also describe camel remains being placed on his back while he prostrated, until Fatimah removed them.

The Prophet permitted a group of companions to seek safety for their faith in Abyssinia. It was chosen for the justice of its ruler, the Negus, not because it was Arab land or under Muslim control.

Ja'far ibn Abi Talib explained to the Negus how Islam had changed their beliefs and conduct and recited from Surah Maryam. The ruler refused to surrender them to Quraysh's representatives and granted them safety.

Groups within Quraysh boycotted Banu Hashim and Banu al-Muttalib to force them to surrender the Prophet. Believing and non-believing relatives shared the hardship in defence of their protective ties.

The boycott continued through a harsh period until men from Quraysh worked to end it. The episode shows that people do not always fall into simple opposing groups; a non-Muslim may resist injustice out of honour.

Under pressure, Abu Bakr also set out towards Abyssinia, but Ibn al-Daghinah met him and brought him back under protection, citing his service to relatives, guests and people in need.

Quraysh objected to his public Qur'an recitation and its effect on listeners. Faced with restricting it to his home or returning the protection, he returned it and relied on Allah. This is distinct from the journey of those who stayed with the Negus.

04Loss, Ta'if and the Night Journey

Abu Talib died following his people's religion despite his protection of the Prophet. Khadijah also died. The Prophet lost both external protection and a faithful source of comfort, while persecution intensified.

Grief did not end his mission. He continued presenting Islam to individuals and tribes and travelled to Ta'if seeking a community that would listen.

The people of Ta'if rejected him and stirred others to abuse him. He returned distressed. An authentic report relates that, when the angel of the mountains offered to crush the people of Makkah between its mountains, he hoped instead for believing descendants.

Mercy did not deny the pain or mean abandoning the message. It meant looking beyond the immediate wrong while continuing to seek lawful support and convey revelation.

Allah took His Prophet, awake in body and soul, by night from the Sacred Mosque to Al-Aqsa, then raised him through the heavens and showed him great signs.

The daily prayers were established as five in practice with the reward of fifty. The journey connected Makkah, Jerusalem and the succession of prophets, and its report tested people's acceptance of the truth.

05The pledge at Al-Aqabah and migration to Madinah

Islam spread in Yathrib through Qur'an recitation and Mus'ab ibn Umayr's teaching. The Ansar pledged at Al-Aqabah to obey, give, uphold what is right and protect the Prophet if he came to them.

The pledge was more than passing enthusiasm. Al-Abbas explained its consequences, and representatives were appointed to organise their groups. Faith was joined with clear responsibility.

The Prophet left with Abu Bakr and stayed in the cave of Thawr. Asma prepared provisions, Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr carried news, Amir ibn Fuhayrah tended sheep, and Abdullah ibn Urayqit was hired as a skilled, trusted guide.

Reliance on Allah did not mean neglecting practical means. The Prophet planned within his ability and trusted Allah's protection. Employing a reliable, competent non-Muslim expert for lawful work fits this example.

He arrived at Quba and then entered Madinah, beginning the mosque and strengthening ties between the emigrants and the Ansar. Migration became the foundation of a community committed to worship and justice.

The Hijrah is a historical event whose lessons include sacrifice, planning, support and institution-building, rather than an occasion requiring reenactment of every detail.

Aishah's report explains that Abdullah brought news from Makkah, while Amir brought the sheep so that the travellers could drink their milk. Asma prepared food and split her waistband to fasten it.

The experienced guide from Banu al-Dil was entrusted with the mounts and given an appointment after three nights. Each person had a role, and the journey had an agreed time and route.

06Building the community and the Battle of Badr

The Prophet made the mosque a centre of worship, learning and consultation. He established brotherhood between the emigrants and the Ansar and organised relationships, rights and duties among Madinah's inhabitants.

The new community was not solely organised for war. Prayer, mutual support, trade and justice were central. Permission to fight came for those who had been wronged and expelled from their homes.

The Muslims set out towards a Quraysh caravan within the wider conflict and confiscation of emigrants' property. The caravan escaped, while Quraysh sent an army. The Prophet consulted his companions, and both emigrants and Ansar affirmed their support.

At Badr, the Muslims made practical preparations, formed ranks and assigned tasks. They did not possess a worldly guarantee of victory; they acted with obedience and readiness.

The Prophet prayed intensely until his cloak fell, and Abu Bakr reassured him of Allah's promise. Allah sent angels as good news and reassurance, while the Qur'an emphasised that victory comes from Him.

Badr ended in Muslim victory, with Quraysh leaders killed and others captured. Victory was not unrestricted permission for revenge: revelation addressed the prisoners, and moral duties remained.

The Prophet paired Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf with Sa'd ibn al-Rabi'. Sa'd offered financial help, but Abd al-Rahman prayed for him and asked to be shown the market, where he began trading.

This illustrates both available support and independent work for people who had lost homes and wealth. In the second year, the direction of prayer changed and Ramadan fasting became obligatory: worship and social responsibility developed alongside the conflict.

07Uhud and the Trench: steadfastness under pressure

At Uhud, following consultation, the Prophet placed archers to protect the army's rear and ordered them to remain. As victory seemed near, some left for spoils, allowing cavalry to exploit the opening.

Muslims were wounded, Hamzah was killed and the Prophet's face was injured. Revelation did more than record events: Allah forgave them and instructed His Prophet to pardon, seek forgiveness and continue consultation.

The Qur'an corrected the assumption that a setback disproves the truth. Fortunes change and trials reveal commitment. The Prophet was a human messenger who could die; the religion did not depend on his remaining alive in this world.

Despite their wounds, the Muslims went out to Hamra al-Asad the next day, demonstrating that the community remained capable. Recovery required honesty and action rather than denial.

Later, Quraysh, Ghatafan and other groups gathered against Madinah. The Muslims dug a trench along its exposed side. Hunger, cold and fear tested believers and exposed hypocrisy.

Allah sent wind and unseen forces, and the siege dissolved without a large open battle. Steadfastness here meant digging, guarding, patience and cooperation rather than reckless attack.

Hamzah and Mus'ab were among those killed at Uhud. The companions recalled that Mus'ab's shroud was too short, and the Prophet instructed them to cover his head and place vegetation over his feet. Qays also described Talhah's disabled hand, injured protecting the Prophet.

These reports preserve individual sacrifice alongside military events. Honouring those companions does not prevent understanding the military mistake addressed in Surah Al Imran.

During the trench work, the Prophet shared his companions' hunger and labour. Jabir noticed his condition and, with his wife, prepared a small meal and invited him.

The Prophet called the trench workers, and Allah blessed the food so that they ate and some remained. The event is authentically reported; it does not need added numbers or invented conversations.

08Al-Hudaybiyyah and the pledge under the tree

After seeing in a dream that he would enter the Sacred Mosque, the Prophet set out with his companions in ihram for Umrah. Quraysh blocked them at Al-Hudaybiyyah. Negotiations ended in a truce and their return that year.

Some companions found the terms difficult, including removal of “Messenger of Allah” from the written agreement and the return of certain arrivals from Quraysh. The Prophet honoured the treaty. Its peace allowed the message to be heard, and the Qur'an called it a clear victory.

When a report spread that Uthman had been killed, the companions pledged steadfastness beneath the tree. He was then found to be alive. Suhayl ibn Amr negotiated the agreement and its truce.

After entry to Makkah was prevented, the Prophet instructed the companions to sacrifice their animals and shave. Their grief made the moment difficult, but they complied. Understanding a decision may take time, while obedience preserves the community.

When their initial response was delayed by sorrow, the Prophet went to Umm Salamah and described what had happened.

She advised him to go out, sacrifice and shave without repeating the instruction. He did so, and the companions followed his example. Her judgement played a meaningful part in resolving the difficulty.

09Khaybar, letters to rulers and Mu'tah

In the seventh year after the Hijrah, the Prophet went to Khaybar, a fortified centre whose inhabitants included people involved in rallying the confederate forces. Its strongholds fell after siege and fighting.

He announced that the banner would go to a man who loved Allah and His Messenger and was loved by them, then gave it to Ali ibn Abi Talib. Khaybar's cultivators continued working the land for a share of its produce under the arrangement made.

The companions hoped to receive the banner after hearing the praise of its bearer. The Prophet called for Ali, who was suffering from his eyes, and entrusted it to him.

His instruction was not merely to win. He told Ali to proceed carefully, invite the people to Islam and explain their duties towards Allah, emphasising the great reward of guiding one person. This is the context of the banner's distinction.

The Prophet sent letters inviting rulers to Islam. His letter to Heraclius is established in Sahih al-Bukhari and includes an invitation to a common word and responsibility towards those under his influence.

Heraclius questioned Abu Sufyan about the Prophet's lineage, honesty and followers. Even an opponent's answers testified to the character of his call. The letters conveyed a religious message, not only a request for political recognition.

In the eighth year, an army went to Mu'tah after the killing of the Prophet's messenger to the ruler of Busra. Three commanders were named in succession: Zayd ibn Harithah, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib and Abdullah ibn Rawahah.

All three were killed. Khalid ibn al-Walid took the banner and organised the army's withdrawal. The Prophet told Madinah of their deaths before ordinary news arrived, honoured them as martyrs and called Khalid a sword among Allah's swords.

10The conquest of Makkah and the sanctuary

Biography accounts describe Banu Bakr attacking Khuza'ah with assistance from men of Quraysh, breaking the treaty of Al-Hudaybiyyah. The Prophet then advanced towards Makkah in Ramadan of the eighth year after the Hijrah.

The Muslims entered and safety generally prevailed, although limited fighting occurred in some areas. The conquest should neither be described as entirely without fighting nor as unrestricted bloodshed.

An authentic report states that 360 idols stood around the Ka'bah. The Prophet touched them with a stick while reciting the coming of truth and disappearance of falsehood.

Their removal concerned Allah's House and monotheistic worship in a particular prophetic event. It is not permission for individuals today to attack people or their property.

The Prophet reaffirmed that Allah had made Makkah sacred and that fighting there had been permitted to him only for a limited time. Victory did not abolish its sanctity.

He explained rules concerning its game, trees and lost property, allowing an exception for idhkhir grass after Al-Abbas mentioned people's need for it. Reverence for the sanctuary was joined with practical guidance.

11Hunayn, Ta'if, Tabuk and the delegations

After the conquest, the Muslims faced Hawazin and Thaqif with a larger force than in earlier battles. An ambush in the valley of Hunayn caused many to retreat initially.

The Prophet and a number of companions stood firm and called the others back, before Allah granted victory. The Qur'an corrected reliance on numbers: practical strength matters, but it does not guarantee success.

The Prophet then besieged Ta'if, which did not fall during that siege. Some companions found the decision to withdraw difficult, then fought further and sustained wounds.

When he again announced withdrawal, they accepted it. The biography is not an uninterrupted sequence of victories; ending a siege can be the right decision. This was a different event from his earlier preaching visit to Ta'if before the Hijrah.

From Hunayn's spoils, he gave generously to some recent converts to strengthen their attachment to Islam. Some of the Ansar felt hurt.

He gathered them privately, recalled the blessings of guidance and mutual support, and they were content that others would return with wealth while they returned with Allah's Messenger. Leadership included explaining decisions and respecting loyal supporters' feelings.

In the ninth year, he openly announced Tabuk as the destination because of the long journey, heat and need for preparation. Hypocrites offered excuses, while believers set out with the army of hardship.

No direct battle occurred, but the expedition demonstrated the community's strength and distinguished sincerity from excuses. Ka'b ibn Malik and two companions had stayed behind without justification but told the truth. After fifty nights of separation, Allah accepted their repentance.

After Makkah and Tabuk, tribal delegations came to Madinah asking about faith, worship and rights. The Prophet answered clearly, sent teachers and accounted for people's different circumstances.

The spread of Islam meant more than declarations of allegiance. Communities needed instruction in the Qur'an, prayer, charity and conduct, so teachers returned with delegations to serve that need.

12The Farewell Pilgrimage and the Prophet's death

The Prophet performed Hajj with a great gathering, teaching its rites by words and actions. He told people to learn their pilgrimage from him, as he might not meet them after that year.

His addresses affirmed the sanctity of life, property and honour, abolished pre-Islamic interest and blood claims, instructed care for women and called people to convey his message. No single authentic narration contains every passage now printed together as “the Farewell Sermon”; sound reports must be gathered from their sources.

His final illness intensified, and his wives permitted him to be cared for in Aishah's home. He instructed Abu Bakr to lead prayer and appeared among the people on some days to advise them.

Authentic reports describe his being offered a choice and choosing the highest company. In his final moments he used a tooth-stick, then died with his head resting against Aishah.

The companions were overwhelmed. Abu Bakr praised Allah and reminded them that Muhammad had died, while Allah lives and never dies. He recited verse 144 of Surah Al Imran.

The Qur'an restored their composure. Faithful love after the Prophet's death means worshipping Allah alone, following what is authentically reported from him and carrying the message with knowledge, mercy and justice.

Fatimah visited during his illness, walking in a way that resembled him. He whispered to her and she wept; he whispered again and she smiled. She did not reveal the confidence until after his death.

She later explained that he had told her of his approaching death and then reassured her, including that she would be the first of his family to follow him, as authentic reports relate. The family's grief and faith belong within the account alongside the community's steadfastness.